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Week 2: //Brain development-Differences between male and female// Today lecture is very interesting. I’m more interested in looking at the development of brain according to gender. I’m totally agreed with the lecture and arguments that brain development results from the interaction of different hormones, which is the basis of sex differences. During the early years of children life, brain is influenced by sex hormones such as testosterone and progesterone. The brain development between boys and girls is totally different. The testosterone level in boys is 10 times higher during mid-pregnancy than those of girls. The different brain development between boys and girls starts in the second semester of pregnancy, and this process is influenced independently with the sexual differentiation of the genitals. This forms a trans-sexuality where boys may feel girls and vice versa. However, the degree of masculinization in male is not compulsory to be same as degree of masculinization of the brain. The interaction between hormones and the developing brain structure in both boys and girls is therefore important for the progression of neurologically-based diseases, cognitive behaviour, gender role, sexual orientation and language development and processes, (Swaab, 2007) (Zaidi, 2010).

Some research has shown that development of brain structure is different between boys and girls. Anxiety, eating disorders and depression are more likely to be among girls, whereas substance abuse problems and behavioral disturbances are more likely to be among boys (Kettunen et al., 2009). In another research, indicated that, girls brains have a higher percentage of gray matter, whereas boys have a higher percentage of white matter and also have an overall greater brain volume. This demonstrates that both boys and girls brain are neurochemically distinct (Cosgrove et al., 2007). I’m also agreed with the lecture that girl’s brain help control language and emotion than boys. This confirms in another research, indicated that girl’s brain is more likely to develop language and emotion earlier than boys (Gurian, M & Stevens, 2007).

Cosgrove, K. P., Mazure, C. M., & Staley, J. K. (2007). Evolving knowledge of sex differences in brain structure, function, and chemistry. //Biological psychiatry, 62//(8), 847-855. Gurian, M., & Stevens, K. (2007). With boys and girls in mind. Kettunen, K., Lindberg, N., Castaneda, A., Tuulio-Henriksson, A., & Autti, T. (2009). Gender differences in brain development--correlation with the spectrum of psychiatric disturbances]. //Duodecim; lääketieteellinen aikakauskirja, 125//(11), 1185. Swaab, D. F. (2007). Sexual differentiation of the brain and behavior. //Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 21//(3), 431-444. Zaidi, Z. F. (2010). Gender differences in human brain: a review. //The Open Anatomy Journal, 2//(1), 37-55.
 * References: **

Week 3: Violence against Women in Australia

I didn’t attend the lecture this week, though this topic sounds very interesting to me. I go through other resources and found that violence against women is a problematic issue in Australia that affects women’s human rights. The materials which I found are quite consistent to the lecture this week. There is a dramatic increase in the rates of violence against women in Australia. It was reported that around 1.3 million women experienced an incident of sexual assault since the age of 15 (ABS, 2006a). I think the first thing to look at is the factors that may influence violence against women in Australian setting. These may include socioeconomic status and social and geographical isolation. Low socioeconomic household status is the main factor to use violence against women use violence includes unemployment, homelessness and poverty. Also women especially those living in rural and remote communities who experience isolation from family and friends and homelessness’s are more likely to report domestic and sexual violence (ABS, 2013). The economic dimension regarding violence against women in Australia is also significant to mention. It was estimated that $13.6 billion each year the domestic violence and sexual assault perpetrated against women costs the Australian Government (KPMG, 2009). It is also important to note that the Australian Government suggest a number of significant policies in order to reduce domestic and assault violence against women. These include implementing early interventions targeting women with education on how to increase their awareness to escape conflict situations, as well as increasing community awareness of the prevention of transmission of violence against women (Mouzos & Makkai, 2004). Other programs and services are also directed by non-government agencies and organisations to increase awareness about violence against women (Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, 2010b).  **References:** Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2006a). //Personal Safety Survey, Australia, 2005// (Cat. No. 4906.0). Canberra: ABS.

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2013). Defining the Data Challenge for Family, Domestic and Sexual Violence (Cat. No. 4529.0). Canberra: ABS.

Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs. (2010b). //Office for women//. Retrieved September 30, 2011 from[]

KPMG, (2009). //The Cost of Violence against Women and their Children,// Safety Taskforce, Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, Australian Government.

Mouzos, J., Makkai, T. (2004). Women’s Experiences of Male Violence Findings from the Australian Component of the International Violence Against Women Survey (IVAWS) (Cat. No. 56). Australian Institute of Criminology.

week 4: Implication for delaying Motherhood



It is quite interesting to know the social and health consequences when a woman becomes mother later in life. Today lecturer underlines this issue, and I’m happy to share my ideas and though with others. Women who delayed motherhood are more likely to have negative implications in the long term like low-birth weight, infertility and pregnancy-induced hypertension. Other negative implication may also link to low physical and cognitive development of children after birth. Uncertainty of having child early in life is one of the problematic issues that most women faced especially in industrialised countries. Most women reported that having full-time job and looking for high work position are the most challenges and barriers towards having child early life. The majority of women do not realise that delaying motherhood might be seen as major problems both on them and their children (Matsuo, 2006) (Wiebe et al., 2012). A study showed that delaying the first and second birth later in life among working and non-working women in most of European countries is positively linked with the decline in total fertility rate (Bratti & Tatsiramos, 2008). Lack of family friendly organisations, cultural influences and socioeconomic status are the potential socio-cultural factor producing a delay of motherhood in the most of European countries (Bratti & Tatsiramos, 2011). In Australia, a report showed that the percentage of first birth to women aged 35 and over is increased %10.2 in 2000 compared to 1990. The same report also indicated that abortion has become increasingly distributed among Australian women in early and late ages (AIFS, 2009). Ultimately, women should be aware of the negative implication of delaying birth in the long term. Efforts with health programs to achieve this problematic issue are warranted.

Australian Institute of Family Studies, (2009). Having children. http://www.aifs.gov.au/institute/pubs/diversity/14havingchild.pdf Bratti, M., & Tatsiramos, K. (2008). Explaining how delayed motherhood affects fertility dynamics in Europe: IZA discussion papers. Bratti, M., & Tatsiramos, K. (2011). The effect of delaying motherhood on the second childbirth in Europe. //Journal of population economics, 25//(1), 291-321. Matsuo, H. (2006). The postponement of motherhood and its child health consequences: Birth weight and weight gain during the first year of life. //Vienna Yearbook of Population Research//, 91-114. Wiebe, E., Chalmers, A., & Yager, H. (2012). Delayed motherhood Understanding the experiences of women older than age 33 who are having abortions but plan to become mothers later. //Canadian Family Physician, 58//(10), e588-e595.
 * References**

Week 5: Fashionable Bodies and Eating Disorder

Today lecturer seems interesting. It is much more common that the influence of media such as TV, newspaper or magazine is confronted with the message that women need to be thin and healthy bodies (Derenne & Beresin, 2006). Social pressure has a direct influence on women to be thin, which may lead to the effect of increasing body dissatisfaction (Stice et al., 2003). Other socio-cultural factor that may influence on increasing body dissatisfaction among women is “FAT TALK” for impression management. For example, when a lady sees her friend, she might say “Wow, you look great, have you lose weight (Becker et al., 2013). Talking about body image might be sensitive. However, most women focus more on their bodies and eating habits. It is quite common that most women fear of gaining weight, reduce total amount of food consumed and exercising excessively in order to be satisfied with their bodies. I’m totally agreed with the argument that fashionable bodies cause disordered eating in women and young girls. Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa binge eating, and obesity are all disorders caused by women’s intention to lose weight and be beauty in front of her friends (Fairburn et al., 2000). These disorders are much more common among dancer, actors and models. These in turn may have negative effect on most of women health such as kidney problem, osteoporosis, and severe health problems in the long term. Social activism and social marketing are suggested to be the most effective approaches to fight the influence of negative media on weighting loss (Thompson & Heinberg, 1999). Ultimately, sharing this idea within women is much more important in order to sustain their health in the long term. Becker, C. B., Diedrichs, P. C., Jankowski, G., & Werchan, C. (2013). I’m not just fat, I’m old: has the study of body image overlooked “old talk”? //Journal of Eating Disorders, 1//(1), 6. Derenne, J., & Beresin, E. (2006). Body image, media, and eating disorders. //Academic Psychiatry, 30//(3), 257-261. Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., Doll, H. A., Norman, P., & O'Connor, M. (2000). The natural course of bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder in young women. //Archives of General psychiatry, 57//(7), 659. Stice, E., Maxfield, J., & Wells, T. (2003). Adverse effects of social pressure to be thin on young women: An experimental investigation of the effects of “fat talk”. //International Journal of Eating Disorders, 34//(1), 108-117. Thompson, J. K., & Heinberg, L. J. (1999). The media's influence on body image disturbance and eating disorders: we've reviled them, now can we rehabilitate them? //Journal of social issues, 55//(2), 339-353.
 * References**

Week 6: Women Birthing in Hospitals

I found this topic the most interesting to share with others this week. I’m totally agreed with the fact saying that the quality of hospital determines the health for both women and babies. It is a big decision for women to have a birth in public or private hospital. Public and private are both have advantages and disadvantages. My experience working in hospital sector realised this issue. Health insurance may be one of the aspect women choosing public and private hospitals. Public hospitals are generally low in cost and more attractive because no need for women to pay for good care such as out of hour clinic. Women in public hospitals may be able to choose midwife team care, family care centres and shared care, though the quality of care is lower than at private hospitals. Most insurance in private hospitals are covered both women and babies throughout pregnancy, labour and the postnatal period, and consider as the best option receive care faster than in public hospitals. On the other hand, there are extra costs in private hospitals covered blood test, ultrasound and other medical test. It is also difficult for women in public hospitals to choose his/her doctors, and most of doctors/midwifes are usually unavailable. However, in private hospitals, women can choose his/her doctor and can hold in a private setting instead of a hospital waiting area. It is well-known that women birthing in public hospitals are sharing the same room with others, and also meals are served in a communal dining room. Generally, women birthing in private hospitals are generally healthier than those birthing in public hospitals. In my opinion, women can choose either public or private hospitals as both has advantages and disadvantages. We cannot guarantee the quality because each hospital whether it is private or public has different system.



**References** []. aspx http://mums.bodyandsoul.com.au/pregnancy+parenting/pregnancy+advice/public+hospital+or+privater,6843 [] Pregnancy care option sin Victoria

Week 7: Working Mothers, Childhood Obesity & a Problem of Making Healthy Nutritious Meals

Today's lecture discusses many interesting topics, but I would like to share ideas about mothers working status as it play a significant role in shaping children’s weight and food intake. My impression that mothers especially in industrialised countries like Australia who works full-time may give priority to buy foods from outside home, as time pressures have an impact on the foods prepared in their home environment. I believe that mothers working full-time may find it difficult to meet the nutritional needs for their children. Health risk behaviours (e.g. eating unhealthy foods, watching TV, perform less physical activity) are attributable to the consequences of mothers work status. I’m also totally agreed with research studies argued that working mothers have a negative impacts on children’s health status. For example, children of working mothers spend more time watching TV, which is likely to reduce the intake of nutritious foods(Crepinsek and Burstein 2004).Children of working mothers are also consumed fewer vegetables and more butter and high-fat milk than children of non-working mothers(Haapalahti, Mykkanen et al. 2003). They are also more likely to skip breakfast and consume takeaway meals. Working mothers had less participation in meal planning, food preparation and shopping, so that children may be at high risk of obesity in the long term than non-working mothers(Crepinsek and Burstein 2007). It could be the reason behind that mothers who work full time spend a greater proportion of the household budget buying food from outside the home. Ultimately, links between mother work status and children’s food intake requires much more efforts and further interventions research to tackle the risk of being obesity during childhood period. This can be achieved by providing allocated time for mothers to spend more time with their children and determine their healthy food intake.



References Crepinsek, M. K. and N. R. Burstein (2004). "Maternal employment and childrens nutrition, volume II, other nutrition-related outcomes." Economic Research Service Report, Abt Associates, Inc. Crepinsek, M. K. and N. R. Burstein (2007) "Maternal Employment and Children’s Nutrition. Economic Research Service, U Department of Agriculture, Accessed 1 January 2007." Haapalahti, M., H. Mykkanen, et al. (2003). "Meal patterns and food use in 10-to 11-year-old Finnish children." Public health nutrition **6**(4): 365-370

Week 8: Issues relating to violence against women



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It is with a great opportunity to discuss and share this topic with others in today’s lecture. It is important to discuss violence issues in Australia in order to implement public knowledge and education program to stop violence against women. Although the rate is lower than the rates in developing countries, violence against women in Australia has been classified as a major health issue that affects women’s human rights. It is obvious that family violence is in the top of the main problem that affects women, and it costs the Australian of economy an estimated $13.6 billion a year. Most women record forms of abuse including emotional, social and financial. I’m totally agreed with the today’s lecture that domestic violence is usually taken to mean partner abuse, specifically physical violence between a male and female partner, most commonly perpetrated by the male partner. This is a serious problem as more than 15% of women in Australia had experienced violence from a partner. Women had also reported physical and sexual assaulted from their partner, and they are more likely to experience emotional abuse (manipulation, isolation or intimidation) than those who did report abuse from their partner. I think the problem is that most women do not report to police at the time of violence. The main risk factors associated with domestic violence against women in Australia are alcohol and drug use, lack of social support, separation and financial stress. Recently, there are Australia strategies to reduce violence against women. These include promote community involvement, support partners to model respectful relationships, promote positive partner attitudes and behaviours and support domestic violence services to deliver good services. =====



http://www.smh.com.au/national/domestic-violence-becoming-greatest-social-epidemic-of-our-time-20130622-2op6c.html http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BN/2011-2012/DVAustralia http://www.adfvc.unsw.edu.au/PDF%20files/Statistics_final.pdf http://www.fahcsia.gov.au/our-responsibilities/women/programs-services/reducing-violence/the-national-plan-to-reduce-violence-against-women-and-their-children/national-plan-to-reduce-violence-against-women-and-their-children?HTML
 * References:**

Week 9: Nutrition of Indigenous Women in Australia

Today’s lecture discusses Indigenous women's health. I would like to share my ideas with others regarding nutrition aspects as it seem an interesting topic. In general, we can say that Indigenous diet is changed from hunting and cultivation in to western diet, which is highly dense food. Avail ability of meat through hunting has dramatically reduced, making indigenous people to find another source of protein. Climate change has also changed in the Indigenous diet. Indigenous women in remote communities still experience poor nutritional problems. Limited knowledge of basic nutrition and healthy food choices are contributed to chronic diseases among Indigenous women. The rate of obesity and overweight resulted from poor eating habits among Indigenous women is high. Although they are concerned of providing advice about health eating and responsible for family food, the rate of chronic diseases such as overweight/obesity and diabetes are still higher than non-Indigenous women. There many factors determining obesity and micro nutrient deficiency among Indigenous women. These include low income level, poverty, high prices of healthy foods and food insecurity.Indigenous female are also not well-educated, and therefore, are at high risk of cardiovascular diseases. Low paying jobs may also strict Indigenous women from buying healthy foods that are mostly liked such as fruits and vegetable and milk products. Although fruit and vegetables are readily available in remote and rural areas, women are reported folate deficiency. Poor nutritional status during pregnancy is also stated among Indigenous women. It was reported that more than 35% of pregnancy women in rural Australia taking folate supplements before or during pregnancy.




 * References**

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006). National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey: Australia, 2004-05 Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics.

Robyn McDermott, R., Campbell, S., Li, M. & McCulloch, B. (2009). The health and nutrition of young indigenous women in north Queensland – intergenerational implications of poor foodquality, obesity, diabetes, tobacco smoking and alcohol use. Public Health Nutrition, 12 (11): 2143-2149. http://daa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/DAA_NATSIHP_Dec-2012.pdf

Foley, W. (2010). Family food work: lessons learned from urban Aboriginal women about nutrition promotion. Australian Journal of Primary Health, 16, 268–274.

http://www.aihw.gov.au/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=10737418955

Li, M., McDermott, R., D’Onise, K. & Leonard, D. (2012). Folate status and health behaviours in two AustralianIndigenous populations in north Queensland. Public Health Nutrition: 15(10), 1959–1965.

Week 10: Australian women’s health and lifestyle at older age



This lecture seems interesting and discusses many topics regarding Australian older women health in Australia. I would like to share my reading and thoughts with others. It seems obvious that older women are at risk of cardiovascular disease and other health problems such as osteoporosis, stroke, dementia, Alzheimer disease and breast cancer. Bear in mind that also they have poor diet, and failed to follow the dietary guideline. Older women in industrialised countries like Australia are at high risk of obesity, physical inactivity, stress, smoking, alcohol consumption and unprotected sex more than young age women. I think older women in Australia are not aware of mental health, as considers the main health problem. The prevalence of mental disorders increased with age for both men and women. Anxiety and depression are the main disorders affected many older women in Australia. The prevalence of mental disorders is associated with many factors such as marital status (e.g. widowed, not married), employment status (unemployment, not in labor force), education (completed only high school) and living arrangement. An approach of healthy lifestyle among older women in Australia is to quit smoking/alcohol/drug and performing 30 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity every day. Health education helps women to change their lifestyle. Healthy eating is also important, for example; drink plenty of water, eat a variety of fruits and vegetables and reduce foods that are high in saturated fat, sugar and salt.



**References ** The Mental Health of Australians. http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/BE3D3B52EC2298D9CA257BF0001E8DCA/$File/mhaust.pdf http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/phd-physical-rec-older-guidelines http://www.health.gov.au/internet/healthyactive/publishing.nsf/Content/female-70

Week 11: Health and equality of Lesbian Australia

It is quite interesting to share my interesting about this topic with others. Lesbian may experience range of health problems, particularly related to their sexuality. It is interesting to note that Australia protects and fulfills the human rights lesbian. On the other hand, it is still unclear about whether they will receive support from families, friends and health services. Dealing with this will put too much pressure on improving the health of lesbian in short and long run. Lesbian are at high risk of mental health disorders than others. They also are at high risk of obesity, smoking and unsafe alcohol and drug. These indicators produce in response to different aspects including being threatened on the street, harassment in the workplace, being rejected or marginalised and being abused and violent. Australian research indicates that lesbians have reduced access to health services compared to others. Some of the aspects they challenge include: lesbians may experience of homophobic staff. This may difficulty to support them, or they may wait for a longer time to seek for a support. Health staff in rural and remote area may have less experience to deal with lesbian cases. Lesbians may also experience difficulties dealing with health staff because they think it is not good idea to share their problems with others. Lesbian needs special medical treatment, and this is one of the challenges for health services. There are several strategies to deal with this problem. Raise knowledge and awareness about lesbian sexual health. The need also to test regularly to ensure they are in safe. Focus on building health service understanding of the screenings needs of lesbian. Assist lesbian who are disproportionately represented in the risk of smoking, drinking alcohol and mental health.

http://wachpr.curtin.edu.au/local/docs/reports/WWASH_16072012withcover.pdf http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Gay_and_lesbian_issues_discrimination
 * References **


 * Week 12: Alcohol and depression among Australian women **



The last lecture discusses many interesting topics. I’m quite interesting to share with others about the relationship between depression and drinking alcohol among Australian women. Research indicates women who are depressed may drink too much alcohol. Alcohol usually affects Australian women more than men, because of the way women’s bodies use alcohol.

Alcohol intake increases the likelihood of co-existing depression.

It was reported that Australian women are at high risk of morbidity and disease from mental disorders and men have high risk of drug and alcohol intake. I also think women living in rural or remote areas may have more experience stress and depression such as financial difficulties and isolation, and this may directly link to alcohol intake.

Alcohol consumption may cause long-term mental problems, liver and brain damage and some cancers. Depression and alcohol intake increases the risks of violence and suicidal behavior. For healthy Australian women, drinking two standard drinks daily may reduce risk of harm from alcohol-related disease.



**References ** http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Rural_issues_alcohol_and_depression. http://www.skynews.com.au/health/article.aspx?id=901073 http://www.whs.sa.gov.au/pub/Gender_Women%27s_&_Mental_Health_Fact_Sheet.pdf <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">http://www.health.wa.gov.au/docreg/Reports/Risk/Alcohol/Australian_alcohol_guide.pdf <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/ds10-alcohol.pdf