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 * Week 1 – Married Men, the healthiest men on the planet **

In our first lecture for the semester, Julie-Anne brought to our attention an article which suggested married men are far healthier than unmarried, divorced or widowed men because of the way women ‘nag’ them into good health (Daily Mail, 2010). Whilst the use of the word ‘nag’ to describe the role of a wife who helps their husband to good health is in itself a topic for debate, the discussion of this wiki analyses claims that married men are healthier than their unmarried counterparts.

In an article by Robards et.al. (2012), two possible reasons for married men being healthier than non-married men are suggested. The first is the concept of ‘marriage selection’ whereby healthier people are naturally selected into marital unions, whilst less healthy people are less likely to get married. The second explanation is that marriage offers a ‘protective effect’ where women’s caring nature helps to ensure the good health of their husband. Research has shown that the ‘protective effect’ leads to a decrease in heavy drinking, decreased risk of poor mental health and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease (Wood et.al., 2007; Harvard, 2010). One study also found that at the time of diagnosis, married men are more likely to be in the early stages of a disease, compared to married men. In a study of 27, 779 prostate cancer cases, the median survival rate following diagnosis for married men was 69 months, compared to 49 months for men who were never married and 38 months for separated men (Harvard Health, 2010).



There are a variety of factors that contribute to better health in men who are married compared to those who are not. Whilst current literature was hard to find, older studies have shown that women are more likely than men to utilise health care, have greater knowledge about health, are more compliant with health regimes and monitor the health of others (Briscoe, 1987; Avis, 1990; Plasencia, 1988). One study found that men were 2.7 times more likely than women to seek health care by a member of the opposite sex (i.e. their wife) (Norcross, Palinkas & Ramirex, 1996).

In another study, 66% of men rely on their wives as their primary social support, compared to 21% who rely on people other than their wives, and 10% who rely on no one. This may explain why in a study of women and men whose spouses had died, 30% of bereaved men also died, compared to 15% of bereaved women (Harvard, 2010).

Whilst the Daily Mail’s article highlights the role of women in the health of men, surely the word ‘nagging’ can be replaced with something a little more admirable? It is the husband’s wives after all, who are contributing to married men being the healthiest men on the planet.

Avis, N.E., McKinlay, J.B., Smith, K.W. (1990). Is cardiovascular risk factor knowledge sufficient to influence behaviour? //American Journal of Preventive Medicine,// 6(1), 137 Briscoe, M.E. (1987). Why do people go to the doctor? Sex differences in the correlates of GP consultation. //Social Science Medicine//, 25(1), 507. Daily Mail. (2010). Married men live longer ‘as wives nag them to visit their GP’. //Mail Online.// Retrieved from: [] Harvard Health Publications (2010). Marriage and men’s health. //Harvard Medical School.// Retrieved from: [] Norcross, W.A., Palinkas, L.A., Ramirex, C. (1996). The influence of women on the health care-seeking behaviour of men. //Journal of Family Practice//, 43(5), 475 Plasencia, A., Ostfeld, A.M., Gruber, S.B. (1988). Effects of sex on differences in awareness, treatment, and control of high blood pressure. //American Journal of Preventive Medicine//, 4(1), 315 Robards, J., Evandrou, M., Falkingham, J., & Vlachantoni, A. (2012). Marital status, health and mortality. //Maturitas//, 73(1), 295-299 Wood, R.G., Goesling, B., & Avellar, S. (2007). The Effects of Marriage on Health: A Synthesis of Recent Research Evidence. Available from []
 * REFERENCES **

=** Week 2 – More than just a princess... **=

In this week’s tutorial, the concepts of sex and gender brought into question a new product called ‘Goldie Blox’. Goldie Blox is similar to Lego, only for girls. After attending the lecture on sex versus gender, I was immediately sceptical; aren’t building blocks just that – building blocks? Not according to engineer graduate and Goldie Blox founder Debbie Sterling, who insists that her product ** “will nurture a generation of girls who are more confident, courageous and tech-savy, giving them real opportunity…” **

In her online video, Sterling goes on to say; “we want your girls to play with Goldie Blox because ** as much as she likes dress ups and princess stuff…there is so much more to her than that **….It’s 2013. It’s about time we opened our girl’s minds beyond the pink aisle at the toy store. It’s time to build a new story so our girls can help build our future.”

Whilst one could argue that Sterling is in fact trying to help females break free from the gender constructs that have traditionally bound us to ‘pink aisles’, ‘dress ups’ and ‘princess stuff’, I couldn’t help but feel like it was somewhat disempowering to females. I am a huge advocate for women’s liberation and equal opportunity, but as a woman myself, her words made me feel as though ‘pink aisles’, ‘dress ups’ and ‘princess stuff’ are substandard; less desirable to the ‘confident, courageous and tech-savy’ world of an engineer, a role traditionally reserved for men. As Debbie says, if we want to live in a //better world//, we need girls building things too, we need girls solving these problems… ** any girl you know, is so much more than just a princess”. ** I agree that we need to see more women in roles traditionally reserved for men and that socially constructed gender norms need to be questioned. However, stereotyping all girls as ‘princesses’, is in itself a product of social conditioning. What makes it worse, is that Sterling seems to suggest that being a ‘princess’ (or in other words, being a girl), is not good enough and that if we want to change this, we had better start taking on ‘manly’ roles (yet another gender stereotype).

In my opinion, building blocks are (or should be) just that – building blocks. However, as this week’s lecture pointed out, gender is all about the socially constructed roles, values and attributes that society gives men and women. These constructs start from a very early age and we are privy to gender influences even through the toys we play with. Goldie Blox illustrates how even as we try to narrow the gender gap, we are actually continuing to promote gender differences; differences that can even be seen though the types of building blocks we play with as children.

References: Goldie Blox Inc. (2012). Goldie Box. Retrieved from: []

=**Week 3 – The role advertising plays in women’s exclusion from the public sphere**=

In this week’s lecture, the concept of ‘feminist geography’ and the role that outdoor advertising plays in the gendering of spaces was discussed. As a woman myself, I was curious to delve into these topics, particularly after reading //The men’s gallery: outdoor advertising and public space: gender, fear and feminism//. In this article, Rosewarne argues that women are being portrayed more frequently and more sexually than men in advertising and that this has influenced the social inclusion of men and the social exclusion of women in public spaces (2005: 66-68).

Take for instance the images below; Beck suggests that billboards such as these encourage men to view women in stereotypical ways – as sexualised objects designed for the pleasure of men (1992, 210). As a result of such portrayals, women are reminded of their sexual vulnerability and the subordinate position that they hold in the public sphere and reaffirms the traditional belief that women belong in the private sphere (Longhurst1999, 154; Rosewarne 1999, 70).

Advertisements depicting women as ‘decorations’ or sexual objects is problematic as it socially constructs women in a way that encourages men to view ‘real’ women in the same way (Rosenware 2005, 72). This is being achieved through objectification, whereby a woman’s body is separated from the woman herself and is seen as nothing more than an object or instrument for the use of others (Fredrickson 1997: 174-175). The dismemberment of women is also regularly illustrated in public advertising and includes the advertiser using a part of the female body to sell their product (Greening n.d.). The ramification from this type of advertising is that women have become socially excluded from mainstream society and instead, constructed as nothing more than sexual objects (Rosenware 2005, 69).

Until gendered advertising is banned, the public sphere will continue to operate in a way that privileges men at the expense of women. It is not until we acknowledge the role that gendered advertisements play in excluding women from the public sphere and publically denounce such advertisements, that equality between men and women can be achieved.

Beck, Karen. S. (1991-1993). Advertising, Women, and Censorship. //Law and Inequality: A Journal of Theory and Practice,// Vol 11 Law & Ineq, 209-260 Fredrickson, B.L., & Tomi-Ann, R. (1997). Objectification Theory: Toward Understanding Women’s Lived Experiences and Mental Health Risks.” //Psychology of Women Quarterly// 21: 173-206. Retrieved from http://www.sanchezlab.com/pdfs/FredricksonRoberts.pdf Greening, K.D. (n.d.). The Objectification and Dismemberment of Women in the Media. //Capital University.// Undergraduate Research Community. Retrieved from http://www.kon.org/urc/v5/greening.html Rosewarne, Lauren. (2005). The men’s gallery: outdoor advertising and public space: gender, fear, and feminism. //Women’s Studies International Forum,// 28(1), 67-78.
 * References**


 * Wiki 4 – Gender Equity versus Complementarianism **

Whilst a woman’s sex biologically predisposes her to child bearing, it is her gender which has influenced her to also be the primary care giver. This traditional understanding of parenting roles asserts a gendered division between women in the private and men in the public sphere (Pomeroy, 2004). Today, many women are choosing to break from the traditional roles prescribed to them and instead, choosing to delay having a child to pursue a career.

In the article, //societal foundations for explaining low fertility: gender equity//, McDonald argues that when a woman feels that her decision to have a child will affect her capacity to fulfil her own individual aspirations, she will stop having children. Whilst some compromise is undoubtedly inevitable, he argues that a country with institutions that support a woman’s choice to both work and family, will have higher fertility rates than women who are forced to decide between the two (2013). Gender equity is therefore crucial to avoid such a decline. Unlike gender equality, which demands the exact same outcomes as men, gender equity allows for different outcomes, so long as they are providing equality of opportunity for both sexes (McDonald 2013).

Perceptions of fairness and equity, however, are conditioned by the social structures and institutions that we are part of. The goal of achieving equity is therefore somewhat arbitrary; what is considered equitable in one country or one culture may not be seen the same way in another. Some countries may value the concept of complementarianism and assert the belief that men and women are different and that they are required to carry out specialised roles specific to their sex/gender. In a country like Afghanistan, this involves women staying at home and bearing children whilst the men work. A country like Iceland, on the other hand, acknowledges the fundamental biological differences between men and women but rejects the concept of complementarianism by providing institutions that enable women to combine both motherhood and a career (Cochrane, 2011). Different social and cultural contexts evidently play a major role in gender equity. Despite this, feminists will passionately advocate for the right of women across the world to have equitable opportunity in all areas of life and for society’s social and political institutions to reflect this. Now, more than ever, feminists are seeking to make the ‘personal political’. From a socialist’s perspective, they understand that “the heart of women’s oppression is her childbearing and child-rearing roles” (Firestone 1970). In //The Reproduction of Mothering//, Chodorow also argues that as long as women remain the primary caregivers, children will grow up believing there to be a warranted divide between women in the private and men in the public sphere (1999). Liberal feminists build upon socialist feminist critiques by arguing for social change through legislation and the regulation of employment practices (Devetak, Burke & George, 2007). This might include the opportunity to take paid maternity leave from work, the possibility to work part time and the availability of child care services within the company that a woman works (McDonald, 2013).

Gender equity is by far the most important goal to achieve when it comes to ensuring equal opportunity for women and men. Nurturing political and social structures that combine both the private and public spheres will ensure that women are able to combine family and work and in doing so, enjoy the freedom of opportunity that all women and men deserve.

Chodorow, Nancy. (1999). The Reproduction of Mothering. California: University of California Press Cochrane, Kirra. (2011). Is Iceland the best country for women? Retrieved from [] Devetak, R., Burke, A., & George, J. (Eds.). (2007). Feminism: In //An Introduction to International Relations: Australian Perspectives//. Pp 75-86 McDonald, Peter. (2013). Societal foundations for explaining low fertility: Gender equity. Demographic Research. 28(34): 981-994. doi: 10.4054/DemRes.2013.28.34. Pomeroy, Claire. (2004). Redefining Public and Private in the Framework of a Gendered Equality. Retrieved from [] Shulamith Firestone (1970). //The Dialectic of Sex//. NY: Bantam Books. p. 12.
 * References**

=Wiki 5 – In the Pursuit of a ‘Normal’ Vagina=

This week’s lecture got me thinking about the reasons for why women do the things they do for the sake of ‘beauty’. From a Western understanding of the term, beauty is normally associated with physicality - of the way someone looks. Women are forever in the pursuit of the ‘perfect’ body and may even go as far as cosmetic surgery to achieve what they consider to be the ‘ideal’ look. This thought drew my attention to the increasingly popular decision women are making to go under the knife to have their vaginas ‘va-dazzled’.

In Australia and indeed many other parts of the Western world, the number of women seeking genital surgery is steadily increasing (Davis, 2011). For many women, their decision to have genital surgery is based around their understanding of what an ‘ideal’ or ‘normal’ vagina should look like. Labiaplasty involves reducing the size or changing the shape of the labia minora (the smaller, inner vaginal lips) or the labia majora (the larger, outer vaginal lips) and so for many women, the decision to have surgery comes from them asking themselves the question, does my vagina look normal?

“It’s not unusual for a woman to feel dissatisfied with her labia minora… especially if they are asymmetrical, long or slightly bulky ...and unattractive ” ([|Cosmetic Image Clinics, Brisbane]).

Before women right around the world shrivel in self-doubt and worry about whether or not their vaginas fit into this ‘unattractive’ category, another cosmetic surgery reassures women that if their vagina does not look the way it ‘should’, that there is ho pe through labiaplasty;

“Labiaplasty…can help eliminate these problems and issues…to transform your labia into what they should be …it can [make] your labia much smaller, attractive, and natural looking ” ([|Vaginal Labial Plasty]).



It is important to note that I am not against labiaplasty. For many women, it is necessary in order to stop the discomfort, itching, pain and irritation felt during sex or even during simple things like exercise or getting undressed (Vaginal labiaplasty). There are also some women, who may seek labiaplasty for pure aesthetic reasons and in the pursuit of feeling better about themselves and their body. If this is w hat women need to do to improve the confidence that they have with their bodies, than who am I to judge?

This doesn’t mean, however, that we should not consider the role that society and in particular, the media and the mainstreaming of pornography has had on women’s understandings of the ‘perfect’ vagina. The idea that there is such a thing is absurd, just as Jamie McCartney’s ‘[|Great Wall of Vagina]’ illustrates. This piece of artwork is crucial in helping women across the globe understand that there never was, nor should there ever be a definition of what a ‘normal’ vagina should look like.

Colen & Colen. (2013). Vaginal labiaplasty. Retrieved from [] Cosmetic Image Clinics (n.d.). Labiaplasty Brisbane. Retrieved August 26, 2013, from []. Davis, R. (2011). Labiaplasty increase blamed on pornography. Retrieved August 26, 2013, from [] McCartney. (n.d.). The Great Wall of Vagina. Retrieved from []. Accessed 26 August 2013.
 * References**


 * Wiki 6 - Medical versus non-medical understandings of pregnancy and birth **

This week’s lecture discussed the two philosophies of pregnancy and birth; the non-medical and the medical models. As you can see in the table below, both models are very different to the other and raise some important questions about how we view pregnancy and birth. More importantly, it raises some questions as to what this might mean for the way in which we support women and their children both before and after birth.



This table describes the two philosophical extremes relating to child birth. Most women (and men) lie somewhere between the two in regards to their views and values obtaining to child birth. However, collectively, western countries like Australia tend to hold the view that “pregnancy itself [is] a disruption to health that necessarily requires expert medical intervention” (Mullin, 2005). As a result, words such as ** health, illness ** and ** sickness ** have now become synonymous with **__ pre gna ncy __. **

The __** medi caliz ation **__ of births has resulted not because of biological facts or evidence based research, but rather the social and institutional process surrounding us. That is, there has recently been a greater focus placed on involving medical professionals in assisting women in looking after, preparing and regulating their bodies for child birth, even before conception. For instance, the United States Centre for Disease Control and Prevention now recommends that //all// primary care for //all// women who may become pregnant, be treated as ‘preconception care’. This includes prepubescent girls (Kuehn, 2006).

This ** soci alis ation ** of pregnancy as a medical condition is leading to:


 * The general public viewing pregnancy as a very **high risk** event
 * People believing that it is **irresponsible not to include medical** practitioners and regular medical check-ups throughout the duration of a pregnancy
 * The assumption that the **medical team know what is best** for the mother and baby and that the **mother should remain relatively passive** in birthing decisions
 * Increased stress and worry about the potential risks and concerns about the possibility of **something going wrong** during pregnancy (Stafford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 2011)

What the statistics show, however, is that there is no evidence to suggest that hospital births are any safer than home births (Olsen, 2013). According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2010), home birth pregnancies resulted in 2,206 fetal deaths. This is no different to the 2,202 fetal deaths that occurred in hospitals and other clinical facilities in the same year.

All women (and their partners) have the right to choose a pregnancy and birthing plan that they feel is best suited to what they feel is best for them and their baby. Whilst there are advantages and disadvantages to both the non-medical and medical models of pregnancy, statistics such as those mentioned in this wiki, as well as in the lecture, illustrate that there is no one birthing model that is better than the other. It is therefore important that we, as future health care professionals, remain open to the different perspectives that women have about birthing.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2010). Australia’s mothers and babies 2010. Retrieved from [] Kuehn, B. (2006). CDC promotes care before conception. //JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association // //295//(22), 2591–2 Mullin, A. (2005). //Reconceiving Pregnancy and Childcare: Ethics, Experience, and Reproductive Labor. // New York: Cambridge University Press Olsen, O.C. (2013). Planned hospital birth versus planned home birth (review). Retrieved from [] Stafford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. (2011). Pregnancy, birth, and medicine. Retrieved from []
 * References**


 * Wiki 7 – Barriers that interfere with women becoming active members of the workforce **

In this week’s lecture, the traditional roles assigned to women and men were discussed in relation to how they affect women’s roles in society. Traditionally, the role of Mum’s and Dad’s in the family unit has been divided on gender; the men are expected to go to work and provide for their family as the primary breadwinner and the women are expected to stay at home as the primary caregiver. Whilst this public versus private gender divide is slowly changing, statistics from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) suggest that social, economic and health outcomes are still largely influenced by these gendered constructs (2011). I would like to argue that a lot of this stems from the barriers that women face in trying to participate in both the private and public spheres. According to 2011 data by the ABS, men, on average, are employed in paid work for 41 hours per week, compared to 32 hours per week for women. On the contrary, men engage in unpaid domestic work for less than five hours every week, compared to women who undertake over and above five hours of domestic duties every week. What this shows, is that men are still the primary breadwinners and women are still the primary domestic carers. There are many reasons for this, including a woman’s desire to want to stay at home to look after her children. I would argue that this is not always the case and that there are also a lot of other external influences that often leave the mother with little choice but to stay at home even if she wanted to work;


 * Proportion Employed (a), aged 15 years and over by sex (Feb 1978 - Aug 2011) **




 * Pay Differences:** Women earn 17.5% less than men. This equates to $266 less per week for women or 82 cents per every $1.00 earned by men who are working the same amount of hours. For a woman to receive the same amount of income as men, she would have to work an extra 64 days per year. This works out to be a $14,000 difference in income over a one year period, or $1 million over an entire working career (Nightingale, [[image:equalpay-final.jpg width="277" height="400" align="right"]]2013). When it comes to deciding whether the mother or father will stay at home to care for their baby, it is generally decided upon based on the wage earnings of both the husband and wife. It therefore makes logical sense for the father to remain working as he is most likely earning more than his wife.


 * Paid Parental Leave Scheme:** The Australian Government allows 18 weeks of paid parental leave following the birth of a new born child. Whilst this equates to about 10,000 women taking up paid parental leave per month, less than 20 fathers a month take leave which equates to about 500 mothers for every father (Wade, 2013). This relates back to the trends in pay differences between women and men;

“Many households can't afford to transfer the leave to the father because in most cases they are still the primary breadwinner'' (Baird, 2013 cited in Wade, 2013).

Furthermore, workplace cultures are often highly masculinised and so often discourage fathers from taking paid parental leave;

We've got masculine work cultures that are really strong in Australia compared with parts of Europe where the male take-up of rate of paternity leave is much higher (Pocock, 2013, cited in Wade, 2013).


 * Declaring parental status: ** In a study conducted by Stanford University, it was found that women who declared that they were a parent on their resume were fare less likely to be employed than someone who was not a parent. This is even when all other constants such as qualifications were the same as the non-parent. Men on the other hand, were not penalised and often benefited from their parental status (Correll & Benard, 2007).

** Social stigm **** a: ** As child rearing and the care giver role are still primarily a woman’s job, many women choose to stay at home purely because of the social expectations placed on them to do so. Because of the way that society has defined the role of mothers as being one primarily within the private sphere, women are made to feel like ‘bad mothers’ if they decide to go to work instead of looking after their children. In the UK, more than half of all working mothers feel guilty about leaving their children in another person’s care. Despite this, six out of ten mothers still acknowledge the financial and emotional independence their career gives them. 94% also agreed that going back to work sets a good example for their children (Spencer, 2013). The issue of returning to work therefore returns to trends in pay differences and employment opportunities for parents versus non-parents, as already discussed.

Whilst the role of women in the workforce is becoming increasingly recognised, there are still many barriers and challenges that women face in being able to enter the workforce and the broader public sphere. Until these fundamental causes of gender differences between men and women are changed, women will continue to face difficulties in combining their participation in both the private and public spheres.
 * Financial cost of childcare: ** The high cost of childcare is also affecting women’s participation in the workplace. On average, childcare costs between $80-110 per day per child (Marszalek & Gothe-Snape, 2013). I personally know a mature aged university student and mother who would really like to go back to part time work but is unable to because she would be paying more in childcare than what she would be earning at work.


 * Proportion of Children 0-12 years in Child Care, by Labour Force Status of Parents, 2008 **



Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2008). Childcare. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4102.0Main+Features50Jun+2010 Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Th 'average' Australian. Retrieved from [|http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4102.0Main+Features30April+2013#back4] Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Australian Social Trends. Retrieved from [|http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4102.0Main+Features30April+2013#back4] Corell, S & Benard, S. (2007). Getting a job: is there a motherhood penalty? //American Journal of Sociology, 112//(5), 1297-1339 Marszalek, J & Gothe-Snape, J. (2013). Childcare costs keep NSW mums out of the workforce. Retrieved from [] Nightingale, T. (2013). Pay gap between men and women wider than 20 years ago. Retrieved from [] Spencer, B, (2013). More than half of mothers who work feel guilty about leaving children. Retrieved from [|http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2359161/More-half-mothers-work-feel-guilty-leaving-children.html#ixzz2dyIc3aLI] Wade, M. (2013). Fewer than 20 men a moth take paid parental leave. Retrieved from []
 * References**

To say that domestic violence only includes physical abuse is an assault in itself on the rights of its victims. This is because domestic violence can include one or a combination of physical, sexual, verbal, economic or emotional abuse (Domestic Violence Crisis Service, n.d.). In any of these forms, the perpetrator seeks to in-still fear and intimidation in their victim through controlling and domineering behaviours (Domestic Violence Prevention Centre Gold Coast Inc, 2013). In my wiki’s so far, I have focused more on objective facts, knowledge and critical analysis to aid in my discussions about the way in which women’s health can be affected by the different topics covered in this unit so far. However, this week, I felt compelled to share my own personal story and my own experiences with domestic violence.
 * Wiki 8 – Domestic Violence is not always physical **

Thankfully, I have never experienced domestic violence. Unfortunately, someone close to me has. Up until recently, this person (let’s call her Sally) has been suffering from ongoing emotional abuse from her boyfriend (let’s call him Tom). Without Sally even realising it, he was slowly but surely chipping away at her happiness, her self-worth and her ability to stand up as a strong, independent woman. In fact, this man had Sally wrapped around his finger so well, that she did not even realise, or perhaps more truthfully, she do not want to accept, that she was in an emotionally abusive relationship.

In the lecture and tutorial this week, we identified the types of behaviours that are often identified as being associated with an abusive partner. The violence wheel shows that way in which eight broad behaviours can create an imbalance of power and control between two people when domestic abuse is apparent within a relationship (click on the picture to enlarge).

Whilst I knew that the relationship Sally was in was not a healthy one and whilst I constantly urged her to leave Tom, it was not until after this week’s lecture and tutorial that I became aware of just how serious Sally’ situation was and that her relationship status was a text book example of what an abusive relationship can look like. For instance;


 * Using intimidation:** At the peak of Sally and Tom’s abusive relationship, Tom came over to her house one night and threw items of her clothing over the fence. Tom was recently diagnosed with anxiety disorder and to try and help him through this, Sally had bought him affirmation books. Pages were ripped out of this book and also thrown over into Sally’s back yard. The use of intimidation is used by abusers to instil fear in their victim. Sally was very fearful and needed to call a family member for support. She eventually threatened to call the police if he did not leave. For reasons such as these, Sally was often fearful of making her partner angry.[[image:pub336womenshealth2013/emotional.jpg align="right"]]


 * Using emotional abuse:** For Sally, this involved Tom blackmailing her and making her feel bad if they got into a fight. Tom made her feel like everything was her fault and that she should feel guilty if she dared tried to stand up for herself and not take the blame for what were truthfully his own behaviours. Sally did alsonot want to stand up for herself because she felt guilty and did not want to come across as a ‘bad’ person.


 * Using isolation:** Unless Tom was at work, he used to incredibly upset and jealous if Sally went to spent time with friends or family instead of him. Tom would send her emotionally abusive texts attempting to make her feel bad for not spending all her time with him.


 * Minimizing, denying and blaming:** This is where the man tries to shift blame for his action from himself to the victim. On numerous occasions, Tom tried to blame Sally for the fights they used to get into. He tried to make it ‘their’ problems and ‘their’ issues instead of recognising the sole role he played in creating conflict and tension within the relationship.


 * Using children:** Unfortunately, Tom used Sally’s young adult children as a way of communicating to her and instilling fear. Sally’s children would sometimes receive text messages that he was also sending her. Tom did this in the hope that she would succumb to his requests just so her children would not have to be part of their conflict.


 * Using Privilege:** Tom would often put Sally down about her disability as well as her physical appearance.


 * Using economic abuse:** Thankfully, Tom and Sally did not live together and kept their finances separate. This prevented her from feeling financially bound to her boyfriend for survival.


 * Using coercion and threats:** On multiple occasions, Tom used to threaten Sally that he would commit suicide if she left him.

In addition to this, some other signs of an abusive relationship that have been present in this woman’s relationship with her boyfriend included:
 * Tom not being violent all the time, but often showing remorse for his behaviour
 * Sally hoping that things would change
 * Sally ignoring the bad moment in her relationships with Tom in order to enjoy the times where things were good in their relationship.

Whilst I knew that Sally’s relationship with Tom was not a healthy nor a safe one, it was not until I referred to the Violence Wheel that I realised just how serious her situation was. It made me realise that domestic violence is not something that is always obvious, nor is it something that is easy for the victim to get out of. This is especially the case once she gets caught up in the mind games and manipulative techniques of the perpetrator that lead her to feel guilty for thinking that her partner could ever possibly be an abuser.

Thankfully, Sally has been able to break through the cycle of domestic violence and has stopped seeing Tom. It is a shame though, that there are still so many women facing some form of domestic violence. It is alarming to read figures such as those on this website: []

Whist women are abused at a much higher rate than men, it is also important to keep in mind that men too, can and do suffer from abuse. According to this website, one in three victims of family violence is male: []

What these websites show, is that domestic violence comes in multiple forms, and that all forms, including emotional abuse, can have a long lasting effect on the overall health and wellbeing of its victims. This is why it is so important to say to no to domestic violence in all its forms.

Domestic Violence Crisis Service. (n.d.). Definition. Retrieved from [] Domestic Violence Prevention Centre Gold Coast Inc. (2013). Form of Abuse. Retrieved from 2013 http://www.domesticviolence.com.au/pages/forms-of-abuse.php
 * References**


 * Wiki 9 – Cultural Competence and the Health of Indigenous People **

“If you have come to help me, you are wasting your time. If you have come because your liberation is bound up with mine, then let us work together” – Lilla Watson, Aboriginal elder and activist Following on from this week’s topic, I felt it appropriate to discuss the importance of respecting indigenous identity within a health care setting. This is particularly important for health care professionals when it is considered that only 1 per cent of people working within the health workforce identify as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander (AIHW, 2013). Cultural safety is therefore a crucial precursor to achieving greater patient satisfaction and positive health outcomes.

Cultural safety is health care delivery that is safe and available to all people regardless of one’s identity or who they are or what they need. Cultural safety calls for a shared understanding and respect for the other person despite differences and in doing so, seeks to enhance personal empowerment and encourage self-determination of patients (Williams, 2012). There are three stages or processes that health care providers should work through to achieve cultural competence; cultural awareness, sensitivity and safety (Universities Australia, 2011).

Cultural awareness refers to a health care provider’s ability to realise the differences between two people in one way or another. This may be ethnicity, but it could also be gender, age, socio-economic background, religion or sexuality. Cultural sensitivity on the other hand, refers to a health care provider’s ability to appreciate and accept differences amongst people and the richness this can bring to society. Cultural safety is the final step. Health care professionals who reach this stage appreciate and acknowledge that there is not a ‘one-size-fits-all’ method to health care, nor is there a right or wrong way. Rather, care must be delivered based on the cultural needs of the individual patient (Universities Australia, 2011). Being culturally safe is extremely important when working with Indigenous people as the model of care they require is quite different from the western medical model (Universities Australia, 2011). Unlike the latter which focuses on treating the physical condition of a patient, Indigenous health care must take a holistic approach to health care. This includes physical, emotional and spiritual element

“Health is not just the physical well-being of the individual, but the social, emotional, and cultural well- being of the whole community. This is a whole-of-life view and it also includes the cyclical concept of life–death–life.” (NAHS Working Party 1989). In order for cultural safety to be achieved, one must also reflect upon their own culture and how this affects their values, attitudes and beliefs and consequently, the type of health care they provide to patients. Whilst health care providers might consider themselves to be very accepting and open to other cultures, they cannot and must not assume that they know what is best for a patient simply because they acknowledge that there are differences between cultures. Instead, health care providers must delve into asking the ‘why’ and ‘how’ questions regarding the way in which different cultures would lik to be treated within a health care setting (Ruusuvuori, 2011). This can be done by consulting the patient and being open to learning and approaching health in new and different ways. Doing this will ensure that trust is built between the patient and health care provider, so that improved health outcomes can emerge as a result (Marcinowicz, Konstantynowicz, & Godlewski, 2010).

**References** Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2013). Indigenous Australians. Retrieved from http://www.aihw.gov.au/indigenous-australians/ Macrinowicz, K., Konstantynowicz, J., & Godlewski, C. (2010). Patient’s perceptions of GP on-verbal communication: a qualitative study. //British// //Journal of General Practice, 60//, 83-87. doi: 10.3399/bjgp10X483111 National Aboriginal Health Strategy Working Party. (1989). A National Aboriginal Health Strategy. Department of Aboriginal Affairs, Canberra. Ruusuvuori, J. (2001). Looking means listening: coordinating displays of engagement in doctor-patient interaction. //Social Science and Medicine, 52,// 1093-1108. Universities Australia. (2011). National Best Practice Framework for Indigenous Cultural Competency in Australian Universities. Retrieved from [] Williams, R. (2012). Cultural safety – what does it mean for our work practice? Retrieved from []


 * Wiki 10 – Feminism and the aging woman **

//** "Has it never occurred to those of you in Women's Studies, as you ignore the meaning and the politics of the lives of women beyond our reproductive years, that this is male thinking? Has it never occurred to you as you build feminist theory that ageism is a central feminist issue?" **(Macdonald, cited in Marshall, 2006).// Women in today’s Western society are made to fear the process of aging. Whether it is wrinkly skin, grey hair or hot flushes, signs of growing old are to be dreaded. As a consequence, women of all ages have been led into thinking that if they buy the latest anti-wrinkle cosmetics, dye their greying hair and keep their hot flushes a secret that they will die looking and feeling young and beautiful. What aggravates me about this is that society has made it seem like aging is something to be looked down upon and consequently feared. We have become a society which sees old wrinkly women not as the beautiful women that they are, but rather the unattractive, unwanted and unimportant people that they are socially constructed to be.

The question is, why has feminism not objected to this social wrong doing? As Samiezade’-Yazd said, //“women’s rights have always been more focused on advancing younger women of the future than it has on preserving aging women of the past”.// The 1960’s women’s liberation movement is an example of this in that it was predominantly led by young women. Very rarely did the mothers or grandmothers of these young suffragettes make an appearance. One could say that as a result, the movement set a foundation for women’s rights that does not take into consideration the complexities and subsequently the differences in the needs, wants and rights of women across the ages.

This concept is often referred to as ageist discrimination; one could argue that whilst feminism is certainly ripe, particularly in the Western world, it tends to advocate for the rights, needs and wants of younger women whilst ignoring their post-menopausal, ‘elderly’ counterparts. Ageist discrimination is no more evident than in the following examples;
 * The emphasis that feminism places on reproductive health. Feminism focuses on the rights women have to contraception and their ability to choose whether and when they fall pregnant. Whilst this is important when considering women’s rights, the rights of older women going through menopause are ignored. Despite menopause falling under the umbrella of reproductive health, it seems that women are viewed as ticking time bombs and that once they can no longer reproduce, reproductive rights are no longer an issue for them.
 * Feminists are quick to fight back against the use of words such as ‘slut’, ‘bitch’ and ‘weak’ in populations of young women, but not as much is said about the words used to describe menopausal women, such as those in the image on the right
 * Feminism also places a great deal of importance on promoting women as strong and independent. This is extremely important for women, particularly for the promotion of their right to an education, career and overall independence, however it does not take into account that as women age, we become increasingly dependent on others.

With this said, the reason why I believe this is a women’s issue and not just an aging issue is because men do not seem to come across the same ‘shame’ as women do during the aging process. For instance; - It is considered more socially appropriate for an older man to be going out with a younger woman than it is for an older woman to be going out with a younger man. Whilst older men are often praised and congratulated for finding a beautiful young lady, older women are often viewed as ‘sick’ and given the derogatory name of ‘cougar’. - Older, single men are often titled ‘life-long bachelorettes; women are referred to as spinsters, widows and old maids. - From a social standpoint, men’s fertility seems to never expire. Women on the other hand, are said to have an expiry date that is hit once they reach menopause. - Regardless of their age, men are perceived as never too old for sex. Older women on the other hand are seen as ‘dry’ and ‘out of date’, with low libido and consequently no interested in sex Upon reflection of this week’s lecture, tutorial and my own personal research, I feel that feminism has a lot to say for the lack of value they place on fighting for the rights of aging women. Until feminists consider the role that they play in the rights of older women and the importance of ensuring women are valued and that their need, rights and wants are met at any age, the aging of women will continue to be feared, shamed and disrespected.

Marshall, L. (2006). Aging: A Feminist Issue. //NWSA Journal//, 18(1): VII-xiii Samiezade’-Yazd, S. (2010). Ageism is a Feminist Issues. Retrieved from []
 * References**

=Week 11 -=

Julie-Anne absent (no lecture/no tutorial)
=**Wiki 12 – What having a period means for women around the world…**=

Today’s lecture brought to the forefront of my mind the way in which women’s bodily ‘issues’ were understood during the nineteenth century and how these views have changed over time. I found it hard to believe that at one point in history, women’s periods were considered to be an evil, poisonous curse that was both mysterious and threatening to the rest of society (Jacquart, Thomasset., & Adamson, 1988). Ancient philosophers, for instance, warned of the ‘wandering womb’ and how it symbolised reproductive failure (Jones, 1994). The 1800’s also suggested that menstruating women were not biologically capable of undertaking tasks outside of the home as work in the public sphere was seen to disrupt the natural rhythm of the menstrual cycle and thus lead to reproductive challenges (Delaney, Lupton, & Toth, 1976; Stein & Kim, 2009).

Whilst I had heard of some of these beliefs before, I had certainly not heard of the way in which the Christian Bible explained women’s periods. In Leviticus 15:19-30, I was shocked to read;

“When a woman has her regular flow of blood, the **impurity** of her monthly period will last seven days, and anyone who touches her will **be unclean** till evening…If a man has sexual relations with her and her monthly flow touches him, **he will be unclean** for seven days…On the eighth day she must take two doves or two young pigeons and bring them to the priest…to sacrifice one for a sin offering and the other for a burnt offering. In this way **he will make atonement for her** **before the Lord for the uncleanness of her discharge.”**

Whilst such opinions about women’s menstrual cycles seemed shocking to me at first, I was quick to remind myself that in both the developing and developed world, the very act of menstruating is still a source of discrimination against women. For instance;

This link is to an article which discusses the stigma around menstruation in India. The author retells stories of Indian girls who, upon beginning their periods, learn from their elders that it is forbidden for women who are menstruating to cook because they will pollute the food and that they should not touch Hindu gods because they will tarnish their purity. Another girl was led to believe that her nail polish was spoilt because she had applied it during her period. Beyond these myths, the article makes readers aware of the severe health implications for girls living in countries that do not openly talk about how women should care for themselves when menstruating. As a result, women are using old dirty clothes in place of sanitary pads. This is leading to high rates of infection and disease. []

This link is to an article discussing the health, educational and social implications of periods for women in sub-Saharan Africa. It reports that periods are another way in which women are disempowered. The author makes accounts of women using toilet paper, rags, old clothes and even tree leaves in place of sanitary items which make them very susceptible to infection. Having to use such items is largely due to the unavailability of pads or tampons and/or women being unable to afford to purchase the necessary products. In this instance, girls are often not able to go to school, but instead remain confined at home. It is also reported that some girls will engage in prostitution so that they can afford to buy basics such as sanitary items. This can also lead to health issues such as HIV. []



When reading these articles about the developing world, it was certainly less of a surprise than when I read the next article which was written within the context of the Western world. This link is to an article discussing a comment made by an American bureaucrat regarding the possible issues associated with allowing women to work on the front line during their period – and it was written in 2013! []

After reading all of these articles and considering my point of view on menstruation, I felt as though I was definitely an advocate for getting rid of taboos and supporting the idea that a woman’s menstrual cycle is a biological phenomena which is both natural and ok! Despite this, I was a little shaken when I came across this website which includes photographs of women ‘leaking’ during their periods. []. Whilst the intention of these pieces of ‘artwork’, as described by its artist, was to strip down the stigma attached to women’s periods, I am still questioning whether the photos are inappropriate or whether I am perhaps still one of those people who help to maintain the social stigma attached to women’s menstrual cycles?

Regardless, what all of these articles show is that no matter where women are in the world, they still fall victim to the taboo of menstruation. From the developed to the developing world, women will most likely encounter some degree of stigmatisation all because of their period. This is something that must be changed, not just for the health of those concerned, but to also break down the social barriers that continue to exclude and disqualify many women from the social world today.

Dean Jones, L. (1994). //Women’s Bodies in Classical Greek Science.// Oxford: Clarendon Press. Delaney, J., Lupton, M.J., & Toth, E. (1976). //The Curse: A Cultural History of Menstruation//. New York, NY: E.P. Dutton & Co. Inc. Jacquart, D., Thomasset, C., & Adamson, M. (1988). Sexuality and Medicine in the Middle Ages. Princeton University press Stein, E., & Kim, S. (2009). //Flow: The Cultural Story of Menstruation//. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Griffin.
 * References**

=**Week 13 – Female Genital Mutilation – there are always two sides to the story…**=

Whilst we did not have a lecture this week, upon looking through the slides, I was drawn to the topic of female genital mutilation (FGM). In brief terms, FGM involves the complete or partial alteration and cutting of the female genital organs (WHO, 2013). For the purpose of this reflection, I wish to focus on the sociology behind the practise and the current arguments used to argue both for and against FGM.

As you would expect, one of the main arguments //against// FGM is the myriad of both short and long term health issues (WHO, 2013). Coupled with this, is the perspectiv brought forth by feminist theory. It suggests that FGM oppresses women and allows for male domination and that it is also violates the right of women to their own sexual fulfilment (Lehman & Nath 2009; Oba 2008). From a psychoanalyst perspective, it is believed that FGM is strongly correlated to the fear of femininity. Anti-FGM advocates argue that in countries that practise FGM, women have been made to believe that their sexual desires and behaviours need to be controlled. This removes the so-called undesirable masculinity from a female so that she can be prepared for her proper feminine role (Lehman & Nath 2009). There are also opponents of FGM within the countries in which it is practised. There was a recent field study undertaken by a woman by the name of Dana Lehman who went to Kenya and spoke to women and men about their opinions on female circumcision. She found that most people did not agree with the practise because they feared the way in which they believe it could spread HIV and AIDS (Lehman & Nath, 2009).

There are also arguments //for// the practise. In Chad, Africa, it is believed that individuals are born with two distinct souls or spirits. The first of these is ‘koy’ which is described as being child-like and that as a result, it must be permanently dispelled from the body come adolescence. This enables the second adult-like spirit to come out and prosper (Leonard 1996). If a woman is not circumcised, they will remain child-like and will be considered immature, uneducated and inferior. She may also become stigmatised and regarded as a prostitute and unmarriageable (Little, 2003). Those who are circumcised, on the other hand, how their ability to endure pain with dignity, strength and the spirit of an adult. This is considered very important if the woman wishes to be viewed as worthy of marriage. FGM is also considered part of the family’s obligation to help their child become an adult and integrate into society (Leonard 1996). There are also some cultures who believe that the female genitalia is dirty and ugly and that if the clitoris is not removed it will continue to grow and dangle between their legs. If the baby touches the clitoris, it is also believed that both the new born and mother can die (Little 2003).

With all this in mind, I think it is really important that arguments both for and against FGM are considered in light of the culture and overall context in which they are made. This is because from a Western perspective, FGM is wrong. But if we look at another cultures point of view and think about it in light of their beliefs, values and traditions, the practice of FGM is now all of a sudden not so black and white. This doesn’t mean that we should endorse or legalise FGM in Australia. What it does suggest, however, is that we need to move away from homogenising diverse practices and the tendency we have to make assumptions on what is normal and what is not. We need to move away from a Western only lens to a lens that incorporates multiple perspectives from multiple cultures and their competing traditions, values and belief systems. If we decide that FGM is wrong, as per the stance of WHO and various other international organisations, than we must ensure that we approach and educate FGM practising countries in a way that is respectful of their culture, traditions and belief systems.

Lehman, D.J., & Nath, S.R. (2009). Female genital mutilation: Insider/outsider discourses and the politics of judgement. //Psychoanalysis, Culture and Society, 14 // (4), 406-413. doi: 10.1057/pcs.2009.28 Leonard, L. (1996). Female circumcision in southern Chad: origins, meaning, and current practice. //Social Science Medicine, 43 // (2), 255-263. Little, C.M. (2003). Female genital circumcision: medical and cultural considerations. //Journal of Cultural Diversity. 10 // (1), 30-34. Oba, A.A. (2008). Female circumcision as female genital mutilation: human rights or cultural imperialism? Global Jurist, 8(3), 1-38 World Health Organisation (WHO). (2013). Female genital mutilation. Retrieved from []
 * References**